Anuário Brasileiro de Direito Internacional

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3 3 VOLUME 2 NÚMERO 11 JULHO DE 2011 VI Anuário Brasileiro de Direito Internacional Brazilian Yearbook of International Law Annuaire Brésilien de Droit International Volume2_CS4.indb 3

4 4 Copyright 2011 by Leonardo Nemer Caldeira Brant/CEDIN Todos os direitos reservados Centro de Direito Internacional CEDIN EDITOR E DIRETOR DO ANUÁRIO BRASILEIRO DE DIREITO INTERNACIONAL Leonardo Nemer Caldeira Brant CONSELHO CONSULTIVO E EDITORIAL DO CEDIN Ademar G. Bahadian, Alain Pellet, André de Carvalho Ramos, Antônio Paulo Cachapuz de Medeiros, Antônio Remiro Brotóns, Arthur José Almeida Diniz, Bruno Simma, Celso Lafer, Eduardo Grebler, Fausto Pocar, Francisco Orrego Vicuña, Francisco Rezek, Gilberto Giullaume, Ireneu Cabral Barreto, José Henrique Fischel, Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, Luigi Condorelli, Roy Lee, Thomas M. Franck ( ), Vicente Marotta Rangel, Welber Barral. PRODUÇÃO EXECUTIVA Ana Carolina Rezende Oliveira COLABORADORES Carlos Eduardo Amoni Rangel, Délber Andrade Lage, Eduardo Duarte, Gabriela Frazão Gribel, Gustavo Silva Ribeiro, Lucas Sávio de Oliveira Silva, Mariana Beirão Xavier, Natália Meirelles Teixeira, Suzana Santi Cremasco, Télder Andrade Lage, Tiago Eler Silva e Vindelino Rodrigues Pereira. Submissão de Artigos para Publicação Articles Submissions Admite-se Permuta Exchanges are Accepted Data Limite para Entrega dos Artigos Deadline: 04/2012 info@cedin.com.br EDITORAÇÃO Alexander Oliveira Rosana Martins da Costa Diniz APOIO Centro Universitário UNI-BH ( Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas Gerais - PUC Minas ( Faculdade Novos Horizontes ( Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais - FAPEMIG ( Fundação Konrad Adenauer - FKA ( Ramo Brasileiro da International Law Association - ILA Brasil ( Ficha Catalográfica elaborada pela Biblioteca da Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas Gerais A636 Anuário Brasileiro de Direito Internacional = Brazilian yearbook of International Law = Annuaire Brésilien de Droit International / Coordenador: Leonardo Nemer Caldeira Brant - v.1, n.1, Belo Horizonte: CEDIN, 2006 Semestral 1. Direito Internacional. I. Centro de Direito Internacional II. Brant, Leonardo Nemer Caldeira. III. Título: Brazilian yearbook of International Law. IV. Título: Annuaire Brésilien de Droit International. CDU: 341. Volume2_CS4.indb 4

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7 7 SUMÁRIO 9 Apresentação Leonardo Nemer Caldeira Brant 11 Stocktaking at the Evolution of the UN Human Rights Program Johannes van Aggelen 34 The Global War on Terror, Jus ad Bellum and Normative Change in International Law Jorge M. Lasmar 73 A Natureza Normativa da Ordem Jurídica Internacional Leonardo Nemer Caldeira Brant 90 O artigo 28 da Declaração Universal dos Direitos Humanos e construção de uma nova ordem internacional social Liliana Lyra Jubilut Silvia Menicucci de Oliveira Selmi Apolinário 117 O Comitê Consultivo do Conselho de Direitos Humanos da ONU Luciana Diniz 126 Brasil, a Responsabilidade para Proteger e a conformação da ordem global Emb. Marcel Fortuna Biato 149 Arbitration and Mediation Procedures at WIPO Maria Beatriz Pennacchi Dellore 166 The Role Of The Member States Courts In The Jurisdictional System Of The European Union: The Portuguese Case Nuno Piçarra Francisco Pereira Coutinho 184 The Jurisdictional Character Of Arbitration And The Arbitral Precedent Suzana Santi Cremasco Tiago Eler Silva 205 The Law Of The Sea System: Open Challenges Tullio Treves Volume2_CS4.indb 7

8 8 ANEXOS 227 ANEXO I Jurisprudência Relativa ao Direito Internacional no STJ e STF em 2010 Volume2_CS4.indb 8

9 9 Apresentação A partir do diálogo entre o meio acadêmico e a sociedade civil, o Anuário Brasileiro de Direito Internacional tem como finalidade estabelecer no país, em definitivo, uma publicação semestral, com inserção internacional, engajada na promoção e consolidação de uma visão brasileira do Direito Internacional. Visase, assim, simultaneamente, contribuir para uma melhor compreensão do sistema normativo internacional, bem como assegurar um espaço para reflexão acerca de seus recentes desafios. Este sexto número apresenta anexos que trarão a jurisprudência do Supremo Tribunal Federal e do Superior Tribunal de Justiça relativa ao Direito Internacional, os casos contenciosos e pareceres consultivos da Corte Internacional de Justiça e uma compilação dos tratados ratificados pelo Brasil no ano de 2010, além de contribuições de importantes doutrinadores do Direito e das Relações Internacionais. A iniciativa é resultante da visão empreendedora do Centro de Direito Internacional (CEDIN) e conta com o fundamental apoio do Centro Universitário UNI-BH, da Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas Gerais (PUC-MG), da Faculdade Novos Horizontes, da Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG), da Fundação Konrad Adenauer (FKA) e do Ramo Brasileiro da International Law Association (ILA Brasil). Esta realização é igualmente o resultado da competência, da generosidade e do compromisso com o Direito Internacional de brilhantes jovens. Agradeço profundamente ao Carlos Eduardo Rangel, ao Délber Lage, ao Eduardo Duarte, à Gabriela Gribel, ao Gustavo Ribeiro, ao Lucas Sávio, à Mariana Xavier, à Natália Teixeira, à Suzana Cremasco, à Tátia, ao Télber Lage, ao Tiago Eler, ao Rodrigues e, em especial, à Ana Carolina Rezende. Leonardo Nemer Caldeira Brant Belo Horizonte, junho de 2011 Volume2_CS4.indb 9

10 10 Presentation From the dialogue between academia and the civil society, the Brazilian Yearbook of International Law aims to establish in the country a defi nitive biannual publication with international visibility, engaged in the promotion and consolidation of the Brazilian vision of International Law. The aim is thus to simultaneously contribute to a better understanding of the international legal system and to ensure a space for refl ection about its recent challenges. This sixth edition contains attachments of the jurisprudence of the Brazilian Supreme Court (STF) in relation to International Law, the contentious cases and advisory opinions of the International Court of Justice, and a compilation of treaties ratifi ed by Brazil in 2010, in addition to contributions by important scholars of International Law and International Relations. The initiative is the result of International Law Center s (CEDIN) entrepreneurial vision and has full support of the Centro Universitário UniBH, Pontifícia Universidade Católica of Minas Gerais (PUC- MG), Faculdade Novos Horizontes, Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG), Konrad Adenauer Foundation and the Brazilian Branch of the International Law Association (ILA Brazil). This achievement is also the result of the competence and devotion to International Law of brilliant young students. I would like to deeply thank Carlos Eduardo Rangel, Délber Lage, Eduardo Duarte, Gabriela Gribel, Gustavo Ribeiro, Lucas Sávio, Mariana Xavier, Natália Teixeira, Suzana Cremasco, Télder Lage, Tiago Eler, Vindelino Rodrigues and, specially, Ana Carolina Rezende. Leonardo Nemer Caldeira Brant Belo Horizonte, June 2011 Volume2_CS4.indb 10

11 Stocktaking at the Evolution of the UN Human Rights Program 11 Stocktaking at the Evolution of the UN Human Rights Program Dr. Johannes van Aggelen 1 Resumo O artigo traça a evolução do programa das Nações Unidas desde o início até o presente momento, mostrando os aspectos internos e externos do programa em questão, delineando suas vicissitudes, escrito por um autor com quase 30 anos de experiência. O gravame do argumento é que todos os seres humanos têm locus standing perante os comitês de direitos humanos para defender-se. O artigo também revela a expansão incrível do programa, durante seus mais de 60 anos de existência. Atualmente, a proteção dos direitos humanos é abordada holisticamente, e a proteção e promoção dos direitos humanos são difundidas no sistema integral das Nações Unidas. Abstract The article traces the evolution of the human right programme of the United Nations from its inception until the present. It shows the insides and outsides of the programme containing a continued progress with up and downs, written by an author with almost 30 years of experience within the system.the gravamen of the argument is that human beings are entitled to have locus standing before human rights bodies to defend themselves.the article also demonstrates the incredible expansion of the programme over more than 60 years.currently there exists an holistic approach to human rights protection and human rights are being mainstreamed throughout the United Nations system. I. Introduction Serious concern for the protection of human rights finds its roots in the barbaric acts committed during the Second World War. The preambular paragraphs of both the UN Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights clearly bear witness of the importance of the individual human dignity on which the evolution of the human rights program would manifest itself over the years. 2 However, the London Declaration of 12 July 1941 was the first step in the direction of a universal charter where representatives of a number of governments, including 1 Docteur en droit University Nijmegen, the Netherlands,1976; Doctor of Civil Law, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, 1989, former Senior Staffmember of OHCHR, Geneva. This article is the result of a course delivered at Cedin in August See Johannes van Aggelen: The Preambular Paragraphs of the UN Declaration of Human Rights, Denver Journal of International Law and Policy, vol.28, Nr 2,2000, pp ; see in general Leonardo Nemer Brant Caldeira(editor): Comentario da Carta das Nações Unidas, Cedin,2008 Volume2_CS4.indb 11

12 12 VI ANUÁRIO BRASILEIRO DE DIREITO INTERNACIONAL V. 2 those in exile, committed themselves to establish an organization based on voluntary cooperation with the aim to strive for peace. On 14 August 1941, American President, Wilson and British Prime Minister, Churchill, signed the so-called Atlantic Charter in which both leaders expressed the desire of a new world community in which cooperation among nations would lead to better working conditions, economic development, social security and peace. On 1 January 1942, 26 representatives of governments signed a document using for the first time the name United Nations. The Moscow Conference of 1 November 1943 and the Teheran Conference of January 1944 strived for the same ideals. The final stretch ocurred with the Dumbarton Oaks Conference, August-October 1944 and the Yalta Conference in February The Conference establishing the United Nations took place in San Francisco from 25 April - 26 June 1945 and the UN Charter entered into force on 24 October Another important trend is that until world war II, the relation State-individual was vertical when only states could represent nationals before international tribunals, but where individuals had no real legal recourse by themselves. With the adoption of the Universal Declaration, the relation became horizontal and individuals gradually acquired legal rights as human rights. II. The First Phase of Human Rights Protection ( ) The United Nations Preparatory Conference had recommended to the first session of Ecosoc to establish a Human Rights Commission in accordance with art.68 of the UN Charter, which it did in February At the same time the General Assembly, in January 1946, transmitted to Ecosoc a draft Declaration on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms as a reference point for the Human Rights Commission. The work was carried out by a drafting committee chaired by Mrs. Roosevelt. At the beginning of the drafting process it was acknowledged that although civil and political rights were the first condition of liberty, the progress in scientific and industrial civilization had created economic organizations which were inflicting on politically free peoples intolerable servitudes. Hence the declaration should be extended to cover economic and social fields. 4 Subsequently, the first director of the Human Rights Division, the late Professor 3 United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, 1945, UNCIO, 14 volumes (Conference Proceedings: texts of documents adopted by the Conference,(London 1945). 4 UN Doc E/HR/6 dated 1 May 1946 Volume2_CS4.indb 12

13 Stocktaking at the Evolution of the UN Human Rights Program 13 Humphrey, submitted a 44 article draft containing 10 articles on economic, social and cultural rights. 5 There were doubts from the beginning about the legal status of the proposed declaration. Mrs. Roosevelt stated that it was more advantageous to include a statement of ideals and aspirations and that it should be considered an educational document rather than a covenant of legally enforceable rights. 6 Others expressed the view to elaborate 2 documents, first a declaration which contained general principles or international human rights norms and secondly an agreement which defined certain rights and their limitations.in this sense the drafting committee sent to the Human Rights Commission a draft of an international declaration and an international agreement on human rights. From December May 1948, 3 drafting committees worked on these documents and the Human Rights Commission subsequently reviewed the drafts in the light of comments by governments and Unesco, but did not have time to consider whether a human rights covenant would oblige states to respect these rights as a legally enforceable document. 7 On 10 December 1948 the General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration 8 ; however, the United States stated that the Declaration would not be an enforceable document. Mrs. Roosevelt told the General Assembly: In giving our approval to the Declaration today, it is of primary importance that we keep clearly in mind the basic character of the document. It is not and does not purport to be a statement of law or legal obligation. It is a declaration of basic principles of human rights and freedoms, to be stamped with the approval of the General Assembly by a formal vote of its members, and to serve as a common standard of achievement for all peoples of all nations. 9 Indeed, the Declaration represents a universal ethique of human rights and nowadays the Declaration forms part of customary international law or expresses general principles of international law Section IV,arts (unpublished manuscript in the McGill Law Library on file with author, who worked with Professor Humphrey in the late 1970s); See also Fontanus, vol. II, 1989, private collection McGill University, A. J. Hobbins: The first draft of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 6 Doc. E/CN.4/SR 29 dated 8 December See for an excellent survey: Antonio Augusto Cançado Trindade: Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos, vol.1, 2 nd ed. Sergio Fabris Editor, Porto Alegre, 2003, pp.51-59; for specific references. Johannes van Aggelen:Implementation of Article28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the UN Conferences in the 1990 s, key-note speech, 30 Hamline Journal of Public Law and Policy, Fall 2008, pp GA Res. 217(III), adopted with 48 votes, in favour,8 abstentions and none against with two delegations absent. 9 Bulletin of the State Department, 19, (1948), p Eduardo Muylaert Antunes: Natureza juridica da Declaração Universal de Direitos Humanos, Revista dos Tribunais, Nr. 446, p.35, december 1972, São Paulo; J.P.Humprhrey: Human Rights and the United Nations: A Great Adventure, Dobbs Ferry, Transnational Publishers, New York, 1984, p. 85; L.B.Sohn: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, A Common Standard of Achievement? - The Status of the Universal Declaration in International Law, Journal of the International Commission of Jurists, vol.8, pp in passim; Th.Meron: Human Rights and Humanitarian Norms as Customary Law, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1989; A. Eide, G.Alfredsson ed. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights - A Commentary, Oslo, Scandinavian University Press,1992 ; Philosophical Foundations of Human Rights, Unesco, Paris, 1986; H. Hannum: The Status of the Universal Declaration in National and International Law, Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, vol. 25( ), pp Volume2_CS4.indb 13

14 14 VI ANUÁRIO BRASILEIRO DE DIREITO INTERNACIONAL V. 2 Unlike previous human rights bills such as the American and French Declarations of the 18th and 19th centuries, the Universal Declaration contains civil and political rights as well as economic, social and cultural rights. 11 After an Australian proposal to establish a mechanism to implement the Declaration was defeated early on 12, the Commission was to embark on the task to elaborate a Convention with measures of implementation for states to comply with upon ratification. 13 During the period the Commission on Human Rights worked diligently together with ECOSOC and the General Assembly on the issue. Due to different visions and interpretations between the Western and Eastern bloc, the General Assembly during its 6th session decided to draft two Covenants, one on civil and political rights and another on economic, social and cultural rights. 14 In the US Senate, there was considerable opposition to enforceable rights in view of segregation policies and outlawing racial discrimination was so difficult to realize that President Eisenhower had to abandon support for the two Covenants. 15 In this connection one should not forget that the US Senate only ratified the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights on 8 June 1992 and entered into force for the US three months later. 16 The Covenants were adopted on 16 December 1966 and entered into force in The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination preceded the adoption of the two Covenants(18) 18. Although President Johnson signed the Convention on 28 September 1966, it was not transmitted to the Senate until President Carter did so in Neither President. Reagan nor first President Bush supported ratification. The Clinton administration finally 11 H.Lauterpacht: International Human Rights Law, London, Stevens, 1950, pp ; L. Sohn and T. Buergenthal: International Protection of Human Rights, Bobbs - Merill,Indianapolis, 1973, pp. 516; A. Cassesse: Human Rights in a Changing World, Philadelphia, Temple Press, 1990, pp ; J.Donnelly: International Human Rights: a regime analysis in International Organization,Massachusetts Insitute of Technology.Summer 1986, pp: ; K. Vasak: Human Rights as a Legal Reality in The International Dimensions of Human Rights,Vasak ed, Paris, Unesco/Greenwood Press, Proposal by Australian delegate Hodgson, draft res. E/CN. 4/15 and E/CN. 4/21, p R. Cassin: La Déclaration universelle et la mise en oeuvre des droits del homme, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, vol. 79, 1951, pp ; B.Mirkine-Guetzévitch: Quelques problèmes de la mise en oeuvre de la declaration universelle des droits de l homme, Collected Courses, vol. 83, 1953,pp ; A.Verdoodt: La Naissance et Signification de la déclaration universelle des droits de l homme,louvain,1964;c.malik: The Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,Bulletin of Human Rights, vol. 1, 1986, UN Center for Human Rights, Geneva; A. Cançado Trindade: Co-existence and Co-ordination of Mechanisms of International Protection of Human Rights at the Global and Regional Level,Collected Courses, vol. 202, 1987, pp G. A. Res. 543(VI) of 5 February See Kaufman, Hevener and Witheman: Opposition to Human Rights Treaties in the United States Senate: The Legacy of the Bricker Amendment, Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 10, Nr. 3, August 1988, pp ; C. Roberts: Exploring the Fractures with Human Rights: An Empirical Study of Resistance PHD Dissertation, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, A de Zayas: The Potential for US Ratification and Enforcement of the Covenants on Civil and Political Rights and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, vol. 20, 1990, pp Congress. Rec The ratification was encumbered by five reservations; five understandings, four declarations and one proviso. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Covenant was only signed by the American government on 5 October 1977, but pressure by the Senate on subsequent administrations have prevented until now ratification of the Covenant. See also for the status of all ratifications treaty bodies,ratifications. 17 Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, GA Res A(xxi), 21 UN GAOR Supp. (Nº.16) at 49, 993 UNTS, 3,entered into force on 3 January 1976; Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,at ibidem, 999 UNTS 171, entered into force on 23 March 1976, both documents in A/6316(1966). 18 GA Res.2106 A adopted on 21 March 1965; entered into force on 4 January 1969; 666 UNTS 195. Volume2_CS4.indb 14

15 Stocktaking at the Evolution of the UN Human Rights Program 15 recommended ratification and proposed three reservations, one understanding and one declaration. 19 These are two examples to show how domestic politics permeates the evolution of international human rights. It shows by the same token that international human rights law is in principle dependent on the willingness of national authorities to abide by international norms. However, this is a phenomenon not only limited to human rights law, but it is also recurrent in international criminal law and humanitarian law. A major step forward in the evolution of international human rights law is the possibility of individuals, directly or through intermediaries, to obtain locus standing before human rights bodies. The primus inter pares is the Human Rights Committee which, by virtue of a Protocol adopted on the same day as the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, is authorized to consider complaints of individuals against their governments. Over 1500 complaints have filtered through the procedures since If the complaint is considered admissible, the Committee may pronounce so-called views. These are recommendations to the government in question to alleviate the situation of the individual concerned,but they remain recommendations,although the Committee follows-up on its views. 20 Implementation of the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights took a different venue. As the realization of these rights is rather progressive in venue, the ECOSOC in its resolution LX of 11 May 1976, invited state parties to the Covenant to submit to it, through the Secretary-General, reports on the measures that they had adopted and the progress they had made in achieving observance of the rights recognized in the Covenant and to indicate, when necessary, factors and difficulties affecting the degree of fulfillment of their obligations. In order to assist in the consideration of such reports, the Council established by the same resolution, a sessional working group, and invited representatives of specialized agencies to take part in its proceedings when matters falling within their respective spheres of competence were considered. By its decision 1981/158, the Council renamed the working group Sessional Working Group of Governmental Experts on the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and made some changes in its administrative arrangements. The Working Group encountered some difficulties in establishing its methods of work an d in 1981 and 1982 its composition and organization were modified by the Council Congress Rec. S dated 24 June The best book ever written on the jurisprudence of the Human Rights Committee under the Optional Protocol, giving detailed description of procedural requirements for locus standing as well as the practical implications for governments resulting from the views of the Committee is the book by Jakob Th. Moller and Alfred M.de Zayas: The United Nations Human Rights Committee Case Law : A Handbook (N.P.Engel Publishers, Kehl, Strassburg, 2009, ISBN , reviewed by Johannes van Aggelen in Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 32, Nr. 1, February 2010, pp Volume2_CS4.indb 15

16 16 VI ANUÁRIO BRASILEIRO DE DIREITO INTERNACIONAL V. 2 In its resolution 1985/17 of 28 May 1985, the Council renamed the Working Group Committee on Economic, Social and Culture Rights. The Committee is composed of 18 independent experts and serve as any other member of any other human rights treaty body in their individual capacity. In view of the fact that the Committee was not established when the Covenant was adopted, the Committee is considered to have a quasi-judicial function. The Committee started its work in Since 1988, the then chairman of the Committee, Prof. Philip Alston has been working on a protocol to the Covenant similar to that of the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in order to give individuals and groups of persons locus standing before the Committee. He submitted a detailed report to the Commission on Human Rights in 1997, but due to the progressive implementation of the rights enshrined in the Covenant, the process took far more time to materialize and the General Assembly finally adopted the Protocol in Another feature of the formative years of human rights protection, was the positive impact on the development of human rights by the members of the Sub -Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. Established by the Commission on Human Rights in 1947, the Sub-Commission was mandated in 1949 to undertake studies, particularly in the light of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and to make recommendations to the Commission on Human Rights concerning the prevention of discrimination of any kind relating to human rights and fundamental freedoms and the protection of racial, national, religious and linguistic minorities. The Sub-Commission really functioned as a think-thank for the Commission on Human Rights, but also stimulated the ever-increasing NGO community and civil society to ponder on the depth of international protection of human rights. In the first 25 years of its existence, studies were carried out in the field of education, discrimination in matters of religious and political rights and practices, discrimination in respect of the right of everyone to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country, discrimination against persons born out of wedlock, equality in the administration of justice, racial discrimination, the question of slavery and slave trade in all their practices and manifestations, the rights of persons belonging to ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities, the problem of discrimination against indigenous populations, the question of prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide, exploitation of labor through illicit and clandestine trafficking, the adverse consequences for the enjoyment of human rights of assistance given to the then colonialist and racist regimes in southern 21 Alston report: E/CN.4/1997/105; the Optional Protocol was adopted by the General Assembly by Resolution A/63/117. For an excellent survey on the history of the Optional Protocol see:catarina de Albuquerque: Chronicle of an Announced Birth: The Coming into Life of the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights-The Missing Piece of the International Bill of Human Rights, Human Rights Quarterly,vol. 32, Nº 1, February 2010, pp Volume2_CS4.indb 16

17 Stocktaking at the Evolution of the UN Human Rights Program 17 Africa, the protection of human rights of non-citizens, the right to self-determination through the implementation of United Nations resolutions 22 In the formative years, the drafting of specific human rights took place in the Commission on Human Rights with feedback from the Sub-Commission, which sent its recommendations to the ECOSOC and the ECOSOC then forwarded the text to the General Assembly for adoption. In addition, the initial intent of drafting was the right to be adopted as a recommendation or declaration. As an example, the Declaration on the Rights of the Child was adopted on 20 November 1959 in the form of a Declaration, only followed 30 years later by the adoption of a Convention. This process enables national jurisdictions to familiarize themselves with international obligations and has proven to be quite successful. It is generally acknowledged that the formative years of human rights protection came to an end when the first international conference on human rights was held in Teheran in May It was the first moment of really stock- taking on the improvement of human rights protection in connection with the celebration of the 20th anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration The Proclamation of Teheran adopted on 13 May 1968 listed apartheid, forms of racial discrimination, the remaining pockets of colonialism and the massive effects of aggression, armed conflicts and occupation. 23 The Conference in paragraph 12 pointed to the widening gap between economic developed and developing countries as the major obstacle to the realization of human rights. While the proclamation underlined the indivisibility of human rights, which had been regularly expressed in General Assembly resolutions since 1952, paragraph 13 reminded the international community that since human rights and fundamental freedoms are indivisible, the full realization of civil and political rights without the enjoyment of economic and social rights is impossible. III. The Second Phase of Human Rights Protection: implementation of standards and refinement of the law. This period covers approximately a quarter of a century and culminated in the organization of the second world conference on human rights in Vienna. It was not until the mid -1960s that states empowered the United Nations human rights program to monitor the implementation of conventions and to remedy gross and systematic violations of human rights outside conventional mechanisms. Every year victims of human rights violations have sent the United Nations communications and petitions concerning these violations and in July 1959 the 22 Reference to many of the studies can be found on the homepage of ohchr. org under the successor of the Commission on Human Rights, namely the Human Rights Council; see for the formative years of the Commission on Human Rights,Howard Tolley Jr: The UN Commission on Human Rights, Westview Special Studies in International Relations, University of Cincinnati, 1987; see in general also the United Nations and Human Rights, section One, Subparagraphs II and III, United Nations, New York contained in A/Conf. 32/4. Volume2_CS4.indb 17

18 18 VI ANUÁRIO BRASILEIRO DE DIREITO INTERNACIONAL V. 2 ECOSOC instituted a procedure which to a certain extent allowed these complaints to be dealt with while respecting the principle of non-interference in States internal affairs. This principle, contained in article 2 paragraph 7 of the UN Charter was championed by many countries including the ex-ussr, China and their allies, although one of the outstanding international lawyers of the first half of the 20th century, the late Hersch Lauterpacht, already in the early days maintained that article 2 paragraph 7 did not apply to human rights protection. 24 Under this procedure the Secretariat was instructed to compile a confidential list containing brief indications of the substance of each communication and any replies from governments concerned. This list was then circulated to the Commission on Human Rights and the Sub-commission. These bodies however,could not take any action pursuant to these communications which were treated with strict confidentiality. In June 1967, following a recommendation by the Commission, the ECOSOC established a procedure for examination of human rights violations in particular at that time the apartheid practices in southern Africa and Rhodesia. 25 Following the adoption of that resolution the Commission initiated a study of the mechanisms that the Commission and Sub-commission could use to deal with communications by individuals and non-governmental organizations. This study resulted in the adoption of the confidential procedure under ECOSOC resolution 1503 adopted on 27 May This procedure outlived the Vienna conference and was subsequently reviewed by a working group of the Human Rights Council, which replaced the Commission on Human Rights in The new procedure established two distinct working groups, one on Situations and another one on Communications. It retains confidentiality and is victim-oriented and brings to the attention of the Human Rights Council consistent patterns of gross and reliably attested violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms. 26 Beginning in the 1970s, additional conventions, which anticipated the establishment of systems for monitoring standards-setting texts, began to be adopted. These conventions restated and refined a number of the principles contained in the International Covenants. Each dealt with one specific type of right and articulated in more detail then in the Covenants, the preventive measures and sanctions to which contracting parties should have recourse. 27 Parallel to the confidential procedure, the Commission on Human Rights gradually developed a consistent practice to publicly scrutinize human rights violations in countries. 24 Hersch Lauterpacht: International Protection of Human Rights, Collected Courses,vol. 70(1947-I), pp ; ibid International Law and Human Rights, London, Stevens 1950; the procedure is known as ECOSOC resolution 728 F(XXIII) of 30 July ECOSOC resolution 1235( XLII) of 6 June Human Rights Council resolution 5/1(2007). 27 see for a detailed list of human rights conventions elaborated over the last 60 years the websites of and un.org, under treaties. Volume2_CS4.indb 18

19 Stocktaking at the Evolution of the UN Human Rights Program 19 The first case examined was Chile following the overthrow of Allende by Pinochet. The Commission established a working group to launch an inquiry into the situation. In 1978, the working group was replaced by a Special Rapporteur, who was requested to submit an annual report. The Special Rapporteur s mandate lasted until 1990 until Chile became a constitutional elected government. This initiative led to investigation of human rights violations by other South American countries under dictatorial regimes. How power politics can interfere with human rights protection, shows the case of the third Director of the Human Rights Division,Dr.Theo van Boven, who was dismissed on 8 February 1982 from the United Nations by the then Secretary General of the United Nations,Mr.Javier Perez de Cuellar, under pressure from the then American Ambassador to the United Nations in New York, Mrs. Kirkpatrick. The Argentinian government had protested against the position taken by Dr.van Boven on human rights violations in that country. 28 A quite exhaustive list of so-called country rapporteurs may be found on the website of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights Special Rapporteurs also played an increasing important role in initiating measures to prevent or remedy violations of human rights in urgent cases. This procedure in turn was taken over by certain human rights bodies, such as the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial discrimination. The Office of the High Commissioner also maintains a so-called hot line to report urgent cases. There is also coordination between human rights bodies and special procedures to enhance protection. Since 1984 the chairpersons of treaty bodies are meeting annually and since 1995 they are joined by mandate holders of special procedures. 30 Alongside investigations of cases in specific countries, the Commission established a mechanism for examining certain particularly grave human rights violations in countries all over the world under so-called thematic mandates. The first one was the Working Group on Enforced for Involuntary disappearances, established by the Commission on 29 February Allegations that several thousand people had been victims of such practices made this issue of high priority for the Commission. The reports by the Working Group have gone far beyond the scope of a single state to embrace a number of countries where such phenomena have been observed. Once this mechanism had been put in place, it became possible to address other human rights violations. The next step was the appointment in 1982 of a Special 28 I witnessed personally the event which took place at the opening of the 38th session of the Human Rights Commission. For a narrative account, see Theo van Boven and Hans Thoolen: People Matter: Views on International Human Rights Policy, Meulenhof, Amsterdam, The position of the Secretary-General has been the subject of controversy. An early negative account was given by Shirly Hazard, who worked in the office of the first two secretary generals under the title Defeat of an Ideal: a Study of the Self-Distruction of the United Nations, Little Brown and Company, Boston, Toronto, After the vigorous defense of human rights by Dr. van Boven, the human rights Secretariat came into the limelight, which led Dr.Ramcharan to write an over-enthusiastic book entitled Keeping Faith with the United Nations, Nijhoff, the Netherlands, See for a recent, balanced book on the role of the Secretary-General of the United Nations: Secretary or General? The UN Secretary-General in World Politics, Simon Chesterman ed, New York 2007, reviewed by Dr. Johannes van Aggelen in Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law,vol. 42,Nº3, see the website Volume2_CS4.indb 19

20 20 VI ANUÁRIO BRASILEIRO DE DIREITO INTERNACIONAL V. 2 Rapporteur on questions related to extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions. This procedure is still in place and Prof. Philip Alston in his capacity as Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Brazil in November Since 1986, the Commission has gone far beyond the scope of violations of a natural person to address violations of fundamental freedoms by appointing Special Rapporteurs on the implementation of the Declaration on the Elimination of Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion and Belief, and the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography. The Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography visited Brazil under the old Commission mandate in November In the 1970s, the international human rights community started to be convinced that the achievement of progress in the implementation of all human rights was dependent upon sound and effective national and international policies of economic and social development. Nevertheless, this formulation, which was filled with ambiguity became a major source of controversy within the human rights bodies of the United Nations for almost two decades. These ambiguities included the following: what would be required in order to ensure the enjoyment of economic and social rights; were states prepared to ensure the necessary combination of measures required, such as respecting and protecting the freedom of the individual to engage in economic activity, together with the adoption of the necessary measures for social justice; while the full enjoyment of civil and political rights might not be possible without some basic enjoyment of economic and social rights, do they give any justification for the government to adopt measures violating civil and political rights? If so, exactly which rights should be limited and how would that contribute to the realization of economic and social rights. The Declaration on Social Progress and Development adopted by the General Assembly in 1969 can be seen as a significant step in the implementation of article 28 of Universal Declaration. This declaration brought attention to human rights as well as development issues. It stated that man can achieve complete fulfillment of his aspirations only within a just social order 33 The Western approach concentrated on civil and political rights, while others took their inspiration from the Proclamation of Teheran, focusing on measures to transform social and international conditions in order to make enjoyment of human rights for all possible. From 1973, these two approaches were merged into one Agenda item by the Commission, entitled Alternative Ways and Means for the promotion of human rights by the United Nations. By 1976, the dominant trend was to insist on structural changes as the major road to implementation of human rights.the right to development was first expressed in a resolution by the Commission in A/HRC/11/2/Add. 2 dated 23 March 2009 and addendum A/HRC/8/3/Add.4 dated 14 May Doc. E/CN. 4/2004/9/Add. 2 dated 2 March General Assembly Res. 2542(XXIV) of 11 December 1969; see for the report doc. A/7630. Volume2_CS4.indb 20

21 Stocktaking at the Evolution of the UN Human Rights Program 21 One of the landmark documents in this regard was the adoption, after 10 years of intense negotiations, of the Declaration on the Right to Development by the General. Assembly in December In the aftermath of the adoption of the declaration, a Global Consultation on the Right to Development as a Human Right to place in Geneva in January This issue remains high on the agenda as the Commission on Human Rights established an Intergovernmental Working Group in 1998 to monitor and review progress made in the implementation of the declaration. 36 Under the Human Rights Council procedure, the 12th session of that working group will take place in May 2011 as requested by the Council in October The adoption of the declaration became the last important issue before the fall of the Berlin Wall, which facilitated much the convergence of different ideological positions towards the protection of human rights. The adoption of the Convention on the Rights of the Child took place less than two weeks after this event. It is hitherto the only human rights convention with universal ratification. 38 IV. External Activities to Further Compliance with International Human Rights Law The first resolution concerning technical assistance in the field of human rights was adopted in In 1955, the General Assembly decided to consolidate several technical assistance programs within a broad program of assistance in the field of human rights to be known as advisory services in the field of human rights. This program contained advisory services of experts, fellowships and scholarships for people who deal with human rights issues in their home countries and training courses and seminars on human rights topics. This program was renamed the Technical Cooperation program in The Commission on Human Rights through this program encouraged the establishment and development of institutions and infra structures for promotion and protection of human rights at the regional and national level. Many technical assistance programs, especially with developing countries have led to important results. The African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights was established in 1986 and the African Center for Democracy and Human Rights Studies as well as the Arab Institute of Human Rights were established in 1989 with a major input by the Human Rights Secretariat. 34 General Assembly Res. 41/128 dated 4 December The crucial final debate took place at the Commission s session in March 1986 where finally a consensus could be reached. 35 See for the proceedings document HR/PUB/91/2. 36 Commission resolution 1998/ HRC resolution 15/25 dated 7 October General Assembly resolution 44/25 of 20 November See for a detailed survey United Nations Action in the Field of Human Rights, United Nations 1994, Chapter VI. Volume2_CS4.indb 21

22 22 VI ANUÁRIO BRASILEIRO DE DIREITO INTERNACIONAL V. 2 The question of the establishment of national commissions on human rights has been on the agenda of the United Nations from its very inception. However, it was not until 1978 that the Commission on Human Rights induced governments to set up national human rights institutions. Guidelines were developed and one of the recommendations was to study and keep under review the status of legislation, judicial decisions and administrative arrangements for the protection of human rights. 40 In 1991, following a report by the Secretary-General on conceptual models of national institutions, a United Nations workshop was held in Paris where participants discussed the relationship between national institutions and states, the role of international, regional and non-governmental organizations. The workshop led to the so-called Paris principles to guide national human rights institutions 41. Another growing trend during that period was to include human rights provisions in peace agreements. In the case of human rights institutions, by drawing on international law notions of best practices, peace agreements underwrite international legal movement towards ideal-type institutional arrangements. International law influences peace agreements and vice versa. Normally, peace agreements are aimed at reducing violence and sections on civil, political, social and economic rights are important to stimulate the local new infrastructure and to correct former human rights abuses. 42 As an illustration, the peace agreements in Bosnia, Northern Ireland and South Africa contained important human rights institutions as an integral part of the deal. It contained over arching justiciable rights, the establishment of constitutional or human rights courts, the independence of the judiciary, reform of the criminal justice system as well as reform of the police. 43 So-called Truth Commissions also rely heavily on human rights procedures. V. Second World Conference on Human Rights: from implementation to mainstreaming human rights In the immediate aftermath of the fall of the Berlin wall, the General Assembly requested the convening of a second world conference to evaluate overall progress made in the implementation of human rights. 44 In accordance with resolution 45/155, a Preparatory Committee was established open to all states members of the United Nations, specialized agencies and other observers. 40 Commission on Human Rights res. 23( XXXIV) of 8 March 1978; see also the seminar on this issue contained in ST/HR/SER/A. 2(1978). 41 General Assembly Res. 48/134 of 4 March 1994; further developments in A/RES. 63/169 of 20 March 2009 on he role of the Ombudsman in national institutions. 42 See in general Honoring Human Rights and Keeping the Peace, Lessons from El Salvador, Cambodia and Haiti, Recommendations for the United Nations, Aspen Institute, Cristine Bell: Peace Agreements and Human Rights, Oxford University Press, Bell,Chapter 7; see for the current role of OHCHR in peace agreement the final chapter of this article. 44 General Assembly resolutions 44/156 dated 15 December 1989 and 45/155 dated 18 december Volume2_CS4.indb 22

23 Stocktaking at the Evolution of the UN Human Rights Program 23 During its first session in September 1991 the committee decided to establish a provisional agenda and to request additional funds in order to accommodate representatives of developing countries. It was also decided to convoke three regional preparatory meetings. 45 The second preparatory meeting took place in April 1992 with representatives of 125 states and the 77 NGOs. It was decided that one regional preparatory meeting would take place in Africa at the end of 1992, one in Latin America and one in Asia both to take place in early It was also decided that national human rights commissions could participate in the capacity of observers. 46 It became clear that the conference should deal with the following issues: the relationship between human rights, democracy and development, the impact of poverty on the enjoyment of human rights, national measures of implementation of human rights (judicial,legislative and administrative), improvement of the functioning of the human rights bodies, the relationship between international law, international human rights law and international refugee law, principal of equality and the problem of discrimination against vulnerable groups(indigenous populations and minorities), the rights of the child, the problem of sexual orientation, administration of justice and the rule of law and the establishment of programs in teaching human rights law. 47 It is very encouraging that the Secretary-General of the World Conference openly invited non-governmental organizations to participate in view of their liberty of expression, flexibility of action which enabled them to exercise a fundamental complementary function. 48 The third session of the Preparatory Committee took place in September 1992 and finalized the agenda for the world conference. The outcome also made clear that the conference should allow open debate between states, non-governmental organizations and civil society. 49 The regional preparatory meeting for Africa took place in Tunis in November African states and a great number of NGOs adopted a declaration and 14 resolutions by consensus. The declaration affirmed the universality of human rights and that the promotion and protection of rights was independent of any political or economic system. It warned against new forms of extremism which would undermine the universal values of human rights. 50 The regional meeting for Latin America took place in San Jose, Costa Rica in January The meeting did not adopt resolutions, but instead an extensive declaration in which it emphasized the relationship between human rights, democracy 45 Doc. A/CONF/157/PC/13 of 20 September Doc.A/CONF/157/PC/37 of 7 May report of the Secretary-General on studies and documentation for the world conference, doc. A/CONF. 157/PC/20 dated 26 March UN Center for Human Rights Newsletter vol. 5, (1992). 49 Doc. A/CONF. 157/PC/54 dated 8 October 1992; the provisional agenda for the world conference is contained in document A/CONF. 157/1 dated 18 May See Doc. A/.CONF. 157/AFRM/14 - A/CONF. 157/PC/57. Volume2_CS4.indb 23

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